Humans have used spider silk for a number of uses for a long time. The Roman encyclopaedic Pliny tells us that spider web is excellent for sealing wounds and this is true as far as I know.
It has certainly been used by many people since then. The answer may lie in both its immunity from microbial attack and its strange combination of softness and strength.
Many people through the ages have also used spider web silk to make clothes from. When woven it is both strong and light. Although the weaving of spider silk has never become a commercial proposition it is still carried on by a few traditionalists in places such as Madagascar.
Spider silk is known to have been woven by primitive peoples to make simple bags, such as those once used to carry arrow heads by the natives of the New Hebrides and as such must be a skill that has been practised for a long time.
Spider silk was also regularly woven more technologically advanced places like India and China where it was worn by the richest people only. In 1896 a Chinese delegation to Europe presented Queen Victoria with a spider silk gown.
Spider silk never had a chance to compete with silkworm silk because spiders are much more difficult to raise in large numbers and because their silk lacks the lustre of silkworm silk.
Spider silk has found other uses however, in the early nineteenth century a family of painters in Innsbruck made a name for themselves by painting on cloth of spider silk. One of the interests of this is that the silk is so thin the image can be equally clearly from both sides.
Primitive peoples have found ways of using spider webs other than weaving them. The literature of several European explorers contain references, sometimes quite detailed, to the use by various native peoples in the Austropacific area of spider webs to make nets, both for fishing and for catching butterflies.
These nets were either made from several webs collected across the fork of a branch, or by bending and tying off a branch to make a metre wide hoop and then encouraging a spider to spin a web within the hoop.
As a slight digression I must mention that man and spiders are not the only animals to find a use for spider silk. Birds also like spider silk, it is in some ways the perfect substance for binding up the materials that make a small birds nest.
In Africa, the Americas, Asia Australia and Europe there are birds who not only enjoy spiders as a tasty meal but who also rob them of their webs. Some Hummingbirds make ropes of spider silk to suspend their nests from, and others build their nests almost entirely from spider silk.
No discussion of spiders and man, even as brief a one as this, would be complete without mention of the giant figures dug into the earth 's surface 2,000 years ago by the by the Inca people of Nazca Peru. Among the many animals depicted is a spider. By far the largest spider image in the world this incredible piece of art is 50 metres or 160 feet across. Nobody really knows why it was created.
However this is not the oldest, spider image in the world, that record belongs to a splotchy image drawn by an unknown prehistoric artist on the wall of cave in Gasulla Gorge Spain. This painting is not only interesting because of its great antiquity, but also because the spider is attended by 6 smaller blotches that some people interpret as flies.
Since these ancient times, spiders have often featured in human art works and now it is not unusual to find modern art and jewellery representing spiders and their webs. You can now easily buy clothing and wall posters decorated with spider motifs.
Wednesday, April 2, 2008
10 Myths About Spiders
There have been many myths about spiders that have propogated through the ages. Here I will explain the truth with regards to the ten most popular spider myths.
Myth 1: The daddy-longlegs has the world 's most powerful venom, but fortunately its fangs are so small that it can't bite you. Fact: This is a fully-fledged urban legend, with no basis in fact whatever. It is so widespread that many people believe it who should really know better, including some teachers and TV documentary producers.
Three different unrelated groups are called "daddy-longlegs." Harvestmen have no venom of any kind. None at all! Same with crane flies. Pholcid spiders have venom (like almost all spiders) but there 's nothing special about it. In fact a recent study showed that pholcid venom is unusually weak in its effect on insects.
Myth 2: Spiders are insects. Fact: I find it amazing that a vast percentage of people actually believe this to be the case. How often, in mass media, do we read or hear a phrase like "spiders prey on other insects"? Spiders belong to the class Arachnida and insects to the class Insecta. Arachnids are as distant from insects, as birds are from fish. It really is not a trivial distinction!
Myth 3: All spiders make webs.Fact: Technically a web is not just anything a spider makes out of silk, it is a silk structure made to catch prey. The truth is that only about half of the known spider species catch prey by means of webs.
Others actively hunt for prey (including members of the wolf spider, jumping spider, ground spider, sac spider, lynx spider, and other spider families), or sit and wait for prey to come to them (trap door spiders, crab spiders, and others). What is true is that all spiders have the ability to spin silk.
Myth 4: You can always tell a spider because it has eight legs. Fact: Not exactly. scorpions, harvestmen, ticks, and in fact all arachnids (not just spiders) have four pairs of legs. Insects have three pairs. Also, notice that I said "four pairs" instead of "eight." The number of leg pairs (one pair per leg-bearing segment) is more significant than individual legs, which can be lost.
Myth 5: Most spiders could not bite humans because their fangs are too small. Fact: That may actually be true of a few of the smallest spiders. However, there are well-documented human bite cases from spiders as small as 3 millimeters long. (The bites caused no ill effects, of course!)
It 's not that spiders can't bite, but that they don't bite except very rarely. And even on those rare occasions the bite almost always has only trivial effects on the human, who after all weighs from one to several million times as much as the spider!
Myth 6: Spiders are easy to identify. Fact: No such luck! The world holds over 50,000 species of spiders classified into over 100 families. In your local area there are likely at least 30 families and a few hundred species. Even identifying a spider to family is no trivial task.
All the many published guides to spider families are so organized that a beginner will get it wrong about half the time. At species level, one needs an expensive microscope, a library of hundreds of separate books, monographs and articles, and a few years of experience to understand the many microscopic details that identify a spider, their similarities, differences and variation.
Myth 7: A deadly exotic spider has been found lurking under toilet seats in airports and airplanes. Fact: This urban legend began in August 1999 as a deliberate Internet hoax, disguised as a news story. The original version refers to a spider allegedly called Arachnius gluteus, or South American Blush Spider. Nothing mentioned in the story is genuine; there is no such spider, no such airport, no such medical association, no such doctor, no such restaurant, and no such aeronautics board.
In October, 2002 a new version of the same hoax surfaced. This one mentions a real species, the south Asian jumping spider Telamonia dimidiata, but it is still a hoax. A jumping spider is one of the least likely to be found in such a situation - they are sun-lovers and in any case are no more than mildly toxic to humans.
Myth 8: Tarantulas are dangerous or deadly to humans. Fact: Outside of Southern Europe (where the name is used for a wolf spider, famous in medieval superstition as the alleged cause of "tarantella" dancing), the word tarantula is most often used for the very large, furry spiders of the family Theraphosidae.
Hollywood is mostly to blame for these 's piders are toxic-to-humans' reputation. Tarantulas are large, photogenic and easily handled and therefore have been very widely used in horror and action-adventure movies.
When some "venomous" creature is needed to menace James Bond or Indiana Jones to invade a small town in enormous numbers, or to grow to gigantic size and prowl the Arizona desert for human prey, the special-effects team calls out the tarantulas! In reality, the venom of these largest-of-all-spiders generally has very low toxicity to humans.
Myth 9: Spiders can lay their eggs under human skin in wounds created by their bites. Fact: In a surprisingly widespread urban legend, a nameless woman is bitten by a spider (usually on her cheek) while on vacation. She later develops a swelling, from which baby spiders emerge!
Somehow or other, the venom must have transformed into eggs. Spiders do not find the human body a suitable site for egg laying and no actual case anything like this can be found anywhere in scientific or medical literature.
Myth 10: Some spiders are deadly. Fact: There is no spider species anywhere that can properly be called "deadly." Obviously a few people have died from spider venom, but there is no species anywhere on earth capable of causing death in humans in as much as 10% of cases, even if untreated.
If the person bitten obtains medical aid, death from genuine spider bite is almost unknown in North America and a decided rarity worldwide. Deadly spiders that can incapacitate you in minutes? Only in the movies!
Myth 1: The daddy-longlegs has the world 's most powerful venom, but fortunately its fangs are so small that it can't bite you. Fact: This is a fully-fledged urban legend, with no basis in fact whatever. It is so widespread that many people believe it who should really know better, including some teachers and TV documentary producers.
Three different unrelated groups are called "daddy-longlegs." Harvestmen have no venom of any kind. None at all! Same with crane flies. Pholcid spiders have venom (like almost all spiders) but there 's nothing special about it. In fact a recent study showed that pholcid venom is unusually weak in its effect on insects.
Myth 2: Spiders are insects. Fact: I find it amazing that a vast percentage of people actually believe this to be the case. How often, in mass media, do we read or hear a phrase like "spiders prey on other insects"? Spiders belong to the class Arachnida and insects to the class Insecta. Arachnids are as distant from insects, as birds are from fish. It really is not a trivial distinction!
Myth 3: All spiders make webs.Fact: Technically a web is not just anything a spider makes out of silk, it is a silk structure made to catch prey. The truth is that only about half of the known spider species catch prey by means of webs.
Others actively hunt for prey (including members of the wolf spider, jumping spider, ground spider, sac spider, lynx spider, and other spider families), or sit and wait for prey to come to them (trap door spiders, crab spiders, and others). What is true is that all spiders have the ability to spin silk.
Myth 4: You can always tell a spider because it has eight legs. Fact: Not exactly. scorpions, harvestmen, ticks, and in fact all arachnids (not just spiders) have four pairs of legs. Insects have three pairs. Also, notice that I said "four pairs" instead of "eight." The number of leg pairs (one pair per leg-bearing segment) is more significant than individual legs, which can be lost.
Myth 5: Most spiders could not bite humans because their fangs are too small. Fact: That may actually be true of a few of the smallest spiders. However, there are well-documented human bite cases from spiders as small as 3 millimeters long. (The bites caused no ill effects, of course!)
It 's not that spiders can't bite, but that they don't bite except very rarely. And even on those rare occasions the bite almost always has only trivial effects on the human, who after all weighs from one to several million times as much as the spider!
Myth 6: Spiders are easy to identify. Fact: No such luck! The world holds over 50,000 species of spiders classified into over 100 families. In your local area there are likely at least 30 families and a few hundred species. Even identifying a spider to family is no trivial task.
All the many published guides to spider families are so organized that a beginner will get it wrong about half the time. At species level, one needs an expensive microscope, a library of hundreds of separate books, monographs and articles, and a few years of experience to understand the many microscopic details that identify a spider, their similarities, differences and variation.
Myth 7: A deadly exotic spider has been found lurking under toilet seats in airports and airplanes. Fact: This urban legend began in August 1999 as a deliberate Internet hoax, disguised as a news story. The original version refers to a spider allegedly called Arachnius gluteus, or South American Blush Spider. Nothing mentioned in the story is genuine; there is no such spider, no such airport, no such medical association, no such doctor, no such restaurant, and no such aeronautics board.
In October, 2002 a new version of the same hoax surfaced. This one mentions a real species, the south Asian jumping spider Telamonia dimidiata, but it is still a hoax. A jumping spider is one of the least likely to be found in such a situation - they are sun-lovers and in any case are no more than mildly toxic to humans.
Myth 8: Tarantulas are dangerous or deadly to humans. Fact: Outside of Southern Europe (where the name is used for a wolf spider, famous in medieval superstition as the alleged cause of "tarantella" dancing), the word tarantula is most often used for the very large, furry spiders of the family Theraphosidae.
Hollywood is mostly to blame for these 's piders are toxic-to-humans' reputation. Tarantulas are large, photogenic and easily handled and therefore have been very widely used in horror and action-adventure movies.
When some "venomous" creature is needed to menace James Bond or Indiana Jones to invade a small town in enormous numbers, or to grow to gigantic size and prowl the Arizona desert for human prey, the special-effects team calls out the tarantulas! In reality, the venom of these largest-of-all-spiders generally has very low toxicity to humans.
Myth 9: Spiders can lay their eggs under human skin in wounds created by their bites. Fact: In a surprisingly widespread urban legend, a nameless woman is bitten by a spider (usually on her cheek) while on vacation. She later develops a swelling, from which baby spiders emerge!
Somehow or other, the venom must have transformed into eggs. Spiders do not find the human body a suitable site for egg laying and no actual case anything like this can be found anywhere in scientific or medical literature.
Myth 10: Some spiders are deadly. Fact: There is no spider species anywhere that can properly be called "deadly." Obviously a few people have died from spider venom, but there is no species anywhere on earth capable of causing death in humans in as much as 10% of cases, even if untreated.
If the person bitten obtains medical aid, death from genuine spider bite is almost unknown in North America and a decided rarity worldwide. Deadly spiders that can incapacitate you in minutes? Only in the movies!
Sea Temperature Surprise For Monaco
Global warming and rising tea temperatures aren't playing to the script that environment campaigner Prince Albert of Monaco might have expected, according to recently released figures.
Since becoming Soverign of Monaco, Prince Albert has let it be known that the environment is a major concern of his, and early on in his reign made a visit to the North Pole to highlight global warming, and he has established a foundation to study among other things, ironically sea temperatures.
Rising sea temperatures is seen as a major contributor to the ice caps melting, and is seen as a controversial part of the green campaign on climate change as some scientists argue that sea temperatures would take hundreds of years to rise as a direct result of human activity. Quite what Prince Albert will make of the findings on his own doorstep isn't known yet.
The Mediterranean waters off Monaco caused concern four years ago in 2003 when the water temperature reached 28 degrees centigrade - 82 degrees farenheit - but this year saw temperatures cool considerably to 23 centigrade in July and 24 in August. Two other warm years apart from 2003 were 2001 and 2006.
Commenting on the findings, a local Monaco travel guide states 'There doesn't appear to be a consistent rise over the years in the water temperatures, and they vary year by year, sometimes rising, sometimes falling - which would appear fairly natural rather than anything that could be seen as particularly alarming with a need for action. Should temperatures rise consistently for a few years in succession perhaps that would indicate something really is going on in the Mediterranean around Monaco.'
An example of Monaco taking the environment seriously is the annual Monaco Yacht Show. To attain carbon neutral status last year, the organisers sponsored various projects in Europe and further afield to offset carbon emissions generated by the show. The show paid for wind turbines In New Zealand, generating enough electricity for 45,000 homes and in Brittany France paid for a heath to be planted with chesnut and oak trees to protect water catchments and provide a recreational area, while in the USA paid for a methane capture system, reducing the amounts being emitted by some 95 per cent.
The leadership for the move to a greener State has come from Sovereign Prince Albert, who has been successfully campaigning among world leaders since his inauguration two years ago to move the environment up the political agenda, and it has brought the issue to the fore at home.
Prince Albert signed the country up for the Kyoto Protocol shortly after becoming Sovereign, and a few months later left behind the comfort and glamour of his palace and Casino Square for the wilds of Antartica to see for himself the damage being caused to the glaciers because of global warming. Upon his return he established the foundation with his own money to study the impact of rising sea levels, and since then has been active in the attempts to publicise the need to cut CO2 emissions in the industrialised world.
In recent months he has met both Prince Charles and ex President Chirac of France to discuss global warming. Close to the Fontvieille harbour where the yacht show takes place, a new island is to be built, and the bidders have been told that a successful application must be environmentally friendly, and some proposals indicate that the island will be a floating one to avoid any disruption or damage to marine life.
Prince Albert has been active at the UN too, and is involved with a campaign to plant a billion new trees which is being welcomed by environmentalists. But like the sea temperatures, that hasn't been without controversy either, with a warning by some that in certain regions it could do more harm than good. While the campaign claims that each tree uses up 26 pounds of co2 emissions and in return produces enough oxygen for a family of four, planting the right trees is important to help the world improve her ecological and environment balance.
Since becoming Soverign of Monaco, Prince Albert has let it be known that the environment is a major concern of his, and early on in his reign made a visit to the North Pole to highlight global warming, and he has established a foundation to study among other things, ironically sea temperatures.
Rising sea temperatures is seen as a major contributor to the ice caps melting, and is seen as a controversial part of the green campaign on climate change as some scientists argue that sea temperatures would take hundreds of years to rise as a direct result of human activity. Quite what Prince Albert will make of the findings on his own doorstep isn't known yet.
The Mediterranean waters off Monaco caused concern four years ago in 2003 when the water temperature reached 28 degrees centigrade - 82 degrees farenheit - but this year saw temperatures cool considerably to 23 centigrade in July and 24 in August. Two other warm years apart from 2003 were 2001 and 2006.
Commenting on the findings, a local Monaco travel guide states 'There doesn't appear to be a consistent rise over the years in the water temperatures, and they vary year by year, sometimes rising, sometimes falling - which would appear fairly natural rather than anything that could be seen as particularly alarming with a need for action. Should temperatures rise consistently for a few years in succession perhaps that would indicate something really is going on in the Mediterranean around Monaco.'
An example of Monaco taking the environment seriously is the annual Monaco Yacht Show. To attain carbon neutral status last year, the organisers sponsored various projects in Europe and further afield to offset carbon emissions generated by the show. The show paid for wind turbines In New Zealand, generating enough electricity for 45,000 homes and in Brittany France paid for a heath to be planted with chesnut and oak trees to protect water catchments and provide a recreational area, while in the USA paid for a methane capture system, reducing the amounts being emitted by some 95 per cent.
The leadership for the move to a greener State has come from Sovereign Prince Albert, who has been successfully campaigning among world leaders since his inauguration two years ago to move the environment up the political agenda, and it has brought the issue to the fore at home.
Prince Albert signed the country up for the Kyoto Protocol shortly after becoming Sovereign, and a few months later left behind the comfort and glamour of his palace and Casino Square for the wilds of Antartica to see for himself the damage being caused to the glaciers because of global warming. Upon his return he established the foundation with his own money to study the impact of rising sea levels, and since then has been active in the attempts to publicise the need to cut CO2 emissions in the industrialised world.
In recent months he has met both Prince Charles and ex President Chirac of France to discuss global warming. Close to the Fontvieille harbour where the yacht show takes place, a new island is to be built, and the bidders have been told that a successful application must be environmentally friendly, and some proposals indicate that the island will be a floating one to avoid any disruption or damage to marine life.
Prince Albert has been active at the UN too, and is involved with a campaign to plant a billion new trees which is being welcomed by environmentalists. But like the sea temperatures, that hasn't been without controversy either, with a warning by some that in certain regions it could do more harm than good. While the campaign claims that each tree uses up 26 pounds of co2 emissions and in return produces enough oxygen for a family of four, planting the right trees is important to help the world improve her ecological and environment balance.
Drought Management - Survival In The Dry
Dealing with extended drought conditions can be a daunting affair. Not knowing when a drought will break not only tests farmers, the general community in towns and cities is also affected by subsequent water restrictions and higher food prices.
Drought And Hobby Farm
The hobby farmer is mostly insulated from the financial effects of drought since it is not the main source of income. However, personal pride and a desire to see the farm develop, rather than deteriorate into a dry and unappealing place to spend time, is enough incentive to be proactive in the face of drought conditions.
Special consideration is also required when farm animals are present. The presence of shelter and ample drinking water is paramount if animals are to be comfortable during hot and dry conditions.
Some tactics I have currently employed on my farm are outlined below. As well, general strategies for the future are also mentioned.
Soil Cultivation For Hobby Farming
When planting young trees and shrubs, ensure the soil is cultivated to reduce competition from weeds growing close to the seedlings. Deep ripping of the planting area also helps any rain to penetrate within the root zone of the seedling. Combined with heavy mulching around the seedling, it will have a greatly increased chance of surviving. Water storing crystals as well as products that enable water to penetrate water repellant soils are also available. Protection from strong hot winds will also reduce evaporation of moisture from around plants. Polymer films that are sprayed onto leaf surfaces can also be used in order to reduce evaporation from plants. These synthetic polymers are currently used when transplanting established plants as a measure to reduce transplanting shock.
Established plants may need to be pruned in order to reduce the level of transpiration from leaf surfaces. Young fruiting trees should have any fruit removed and not be fed with fertilizers which encourage tender growth.
Balanced Fertilizer
Fertilizers containing high levels of nitrogen should be used sparingly; however, a balanced fertilizer at the correct time-usually spring and autumn may be used with care. Foliar sprays extracted from an organic source such as seaweed are useful as they contain a range of micronutrients that strengthen plant cells. Plants treated in this manner are better suited to survive extreme conditions as the cell walls within plant tissues become thicker and stronger.
Long- term climatic trends are hard to predict, however, consideration needs to be given to issues such as climate change. I have planted native windbreak trees that generally have a lower rainfall requirement than currently received in our region. Should there be a general term trend towards reduced rainfall these plants once established should cope well. In the event of increased rainfall over subsequent seasons after a drought however, there may be problems due to an excess of water given that these types of plantings are normally suited to dry or very well drained soils.
Crops Selection
Selecting vegetable crops that have a shorter growing season, often the case with dwarf varieties will save on precious water. Ensuring the soil is well managed and carefully cultivated in order to protect its structure will allow plant root systems to become quickly established. Long term plantings such as fruiting trees and palms need to be carefully reviewed and not planted until conditions improve.
In extreme cases some plants will need to be sacrificed. More common plants and those that can be easily and quickly replaced may need to be removed in order to reduce competition for water. The most efficient methods of irrigation that deliver water close to the root system of the remaining plants also needs to be employed.
Water Harvesting System For Hobby Farm
Drought proofing my farm in the long term will also require an effective water harvesting system. Expenditure on tanks and soil contouring in order to channel excess moisture to storage areas will need to occur. This process will be constrained by the available finances, but should prove worthwhile in the long term.
This article is taken from Alf 's Hobby farm site at My Hobby Farm. Alf also writes in details on Small Farm Irrigation as well as farm machiney and implements covering Tractors, Tillers and cultivators.
Drought And Hobby Farm
The hobby farmer is mostly insulated from the financial effects of drought since it is not the main source of income. However, personal pride and a desire to see the farm develop, rather than deteriorate into a dry and unappealing place to spend time, is enough incentive to be proactive in the face of drought conditions.
Special consideration is also required when farm animals are present. The presence of shelter and ample drinking water is paramount if animals are to be comfortable during hot and dry conditions.
Some tactics I have currently employed on my farm are outlined below. As well, general strategies for the future are also mentioned.
Soil Cultivation For Hobby Farming
When planting young trees and shrubs, ensure the soil is cultivated to reduce competition from weeds growing close to the seedlings. Deep ripping of the planting area also helps any rain to penetrate within the root zone of the seedling. Combined with heavy mulching around the seedling, it will have a greatly increased chance of surviving. Water storing crystals as well as products that enable water to penetrate water repellant soils are also available. Protection from strong hot winds will also reduce evaporation of moisture from around plants. Polymer films that are sprayed onto leaf surfaces can also be used in order to reduce evaporation from plants. These synthetic polymers are currently used when transplanting established plants as a measure to reduce transplanting shock.
Established plants may need to be pruned in order to reduce the level of transpiration from leaf surfaces. Young fruiting trees should have any fruit removed and not be fed with fertilizers which encourage tender growth.
Balanced Fertilizer
Fertilizers containing high levels of nitrogen should be used sparingly; however, a balanced fertilizer at the correct time-usually spring and autumn may be used with care. Foliar sprays extracted from an organic source such as seaweed are useful as they contain a range of micronutrients that strengthen plant cells. Plants treated in this manner are better suited to survive extreme conditions as the cell walls within plant tissues become thicker and stronger.
Long- term climatic trends are hard to predict, however, consideration needs to be given to issues such as climate change. I have planted native windbreak trees that generally have a lower rainfall requirement than currently received in our region. Should there be a general term trend towards reduced rainfall these plants once established should cope well. In the event of increased rainfall over subsequent seasons after a drought however, there may be problems due to an excess of water given that these types of plantings are normally suited to dry or very well drained soils.
Crops Selection
Selecting vegetable crops that have a shorter growing season, often the case with dwarf varieties will save on precious water. Ensuring the soil is well managed and carefully cultivated in order to protect its structure will allow plant root systems to become quickly established. Long term plantings such as fruiting trees and palms need to be carefully reviewed and not planted until conditions improve.
In extreme cases some plants will need to be sacrificed. More common plants and those that can be easily and quickly replaced may need to be removed in order to reduce competition for water. The most efficient methods of irrigation that deliver water close to the root system of the remaining plants also needs to be employed.
Water Harvesting System For Hobby Farm
Drought proofing my farm in the long term will also require an effective water harvesting system. Expenditure on tanks and soil contouring in order to channel excess moisture to storage areas will need to occur. This process will be constrained by the available finances, but should prove worthwhile in the long term.
This article is taken from Alf 's Hobby farm site at My Hobby Farm. Alf also writes in details on Small Farm Irrigation as well as farm machiney and implements covering Tractors, Tillers and cultivators.
Micro-Environments - What The Plant Doctor Ordered
Plant culture aims to create the best growing conditions for crops. In order to achieve the best results farmers make small-scale changes to the growing conditions for plants.
Microclimates
Small-scale changes create modified climates called micro-climates or modified environments called micro-environments. Features such as temperature, humidity, moisture levels, sunlight and soil acidity can all be changed resulting in better growing conditions for plants.
Plant nursery operators regularly advise customers about the best way to look after a plant. For example, the location and type of soil will have a big influence on the level of success a gardener will achieve with any particular plant. In essence, gardeners are being advised on how to create the best microenvironment for that plant.
Keeping in mind the optimum requirements for a crop, the next challenge comes when providing the required conditions in a practical way. Matching the correct growing season when planting will help to provide the broad climatic needs for the plant.
Wind, Sunlight, Soil ...
Local conditions can then be modified further by making changes to factors such as exposure to wind, sunlight and humidity. Farm structures such as buildings will provide a range of environments allowing a wider range of plants to be grown successfully.
North facing walls in the southern hemisphere trap more sunlight and heat creating a warmer microclimate
Concrete or brick walls and paths will also radiate heat at night keeping a frost prone area warmer. Shelter spots behind walls and under trees will provide protection from excess heat in summer and suit plants requiring cooler conditions. The shape and density of windbreaks will also change the way in which wind moves around these structures. A solid brick wall for example will cause wind to swirl, while a more open structure composed of shade cloth or plant vegetation will provide a more gentle flow of air.
Frost Damage
Planting on hillsides will allow for an increase or decrease in the level of sunlight received depending on the aspect or direction chosen.
Hillside plantings generally have a reduced incidence of frost during cold weather. Locations near the sea or lakes will also have a reduced risk of frost damage due to the moderating influence of water on temperature.
Inland locations will usually have a wider range of temperature changes between day and night and may need more changes to the microenvironment for success.
Soil microenvironments
Soil cultivation and general cultural activities such as the application of organic matter, lime and gypsum will improve soils in relation the specified crop. Deep ripping of soil before planting trees will also break up compacted soils and rock layers allowing improved penetration of water and plant roots. These activities usually result in improvements to the soil microenvironment and lead to better plant growth.
Water and irrigation management, often necessary for summer crops, modifies levels of moisture and air in soil. Should there be an excess of moisture in winter provisions for drainage may be required modifications in order to prevent soil waterlogging and damage to plant roots.
Microenvironment And Hobby Farming
The range of modifications is endless and often takes time to achieve. Getting the right mix of microenvironments requires experience and patience. There is always a level of uncertainty regarding weather and climate, disasters will always occur, but good management can reduce these risks.
Getting the microenvironment right is well worth the effort. You will be rewarded with a wider range of healthy plants that may not normally grow in your area.
This article is taken from Alf 's Hobby farm site at My Hobby Farm. Alf also writes in details on Greenhouse and Small Farm Irrigation.
Microclimates
Small-scale changes create modified climates called micro-climates or modified environments called micro-environments. Features such as temperature, humidity, moisture levels, sunlight and soil acidity can all be changed resulting in better growing conditions for plants.
Plant nursery operators regularly advise customers about the best way to look after a plant. For example, the location and type of soil will have a big influence on the level of success a gardener will achieve with any particular plant. In essence, gardeners are being advised on how to create the best microenvironment for that plant.
Keeping in mind the optimum requirements for a crop, the next challenge comes when providing the required conditions in a practical way. Matching the correct growing season when planting will help to provide the broad climatic needs for the plant.
Wind, Sunlight, Soil ...
Local conditions can then be modified further by making changes to factors such as exposure to wind, sunlight and humidity. Farm structures such as buildings will provide a range of environments allowing a wider range of plants to be grown successfully.
North facing walls in the southern hemisphere trap more sunlight and heat creating a warmer microclimate
Concrete or brick walls and paths will also radiate heat at night keeping a frost prone area warmer. Shelter spots behind walls and under trees will provide protection from excess heat in summer and suit plants requiring cooler conditions. The shape and density of windbreaks will also change the way in which wind moves around these structures. A solid brick wall for example will cause wind to swirl, while a more open structure composed of shade cloth or plant vegetation will provide a more gentle flow of air.
Frost Damage
Planting on hillsides will allow for an increase or decrease in the level of sunlight received depending on the aspect or direction chosen.
Hillside plantings generally have a reduced incidence of frost during cold weather. Locations near the sea or lakes will also have a reduced risk of frost damage due to the moderating influence of water on temperature.
Inland locations will usually have a wider range of temperature changes between day and night and may need more changes to the microenvironment for success.
Soil microenvironments
Soil cultivation and general cultural activities such as the application of organic matter, lime and gypsum will improve soils in relation the specified crop. Deep ripping of soil before planting trees will also break up compacted soils and rock layers allowing improved penetration of water and plant roots. These activities usually result in improvements to the soil microenvironment and lead to better plant growth.
Water and irrigation management, often necessary for summer crops, modifies levels of moisture and air in soil. Should there be an excess of moisture in winter provisions for drainage may be required modifications in order to prevent soil waterlogging and damage to plant roots.
Microenvironment And Hobby Farming
The range of modifications is endless and often takes time to achieve. Getting the right mix of microenvironments requires experience and patience. There is always a level of uncertainty regarding weather and climate, disasters will always occur, but good management can reduce these risks.
Getting the microenvironment right is well worth the effort. You will be rewarded with a wider range of healthy plants that may not normally grow in your area.
This article is taken from Alf 's Hobby farm site at My Hobby Farm. Alf also writes in details on Greenhouse and Small Farm Irrigation.
How to Plant Evergreens
North, South, East or West - no matter where you live - there are evergreens for every garden. The luxuriance of their foliage, the different shades of green, their variety of forms, textures, and heights contribute lavishly to the planting design. Indeed, like old friends, they can always be depended on to give us real enjoyment through the years. Their easy upkeep, permanence, and the all-year-round green they provide make them all-important in garden-making.
In making a planting plan it is very important to select the right evergreen for the allotted space. This can hardly be overemphasized. For instance, avoid using tall-growing trees or shrubs directly in front of a window. All too often one sees houses literally smothered with towering evergreens placed in just such a location, shutting out the vista, the air, and the light. Furthermore, a planting of this kind spoils the architectural lines of the house, whereas actually one of the purposes of the planting is to set off these lines to best advantage.
Bear in mind the shape of the evergreen selected, and visualize how it will fit into the general planting scheme. Evergreens have definite forms, use the pyramidal and columnar types sparingly; in fact, these are especially adapted for accent purposes, and where space permits they are sometimes well placed each side of a doorway. The globular kinds are very distinctive, and they should also be used with much thought. Evergreens with a bushy habit of growth and the creeping species, such as some of the Junipers, can be used more freely than those with more formal lines.
Another factor that should be considered is whether the planting is to be made in the sun or in the shade. There are evergreens that thrive in every location, and it is an easy matter to find the right plant for the available situation. Some of those that are shade-tolerant include such favorites as Laurel, Oregon Holly-grape, Holly Olive, Cherry-laurel, and the evergreen species of Privet.
If your builder has given you an allowance for purchasing plant material, you are then a free lance. In spending this sum it is much wiser not to attempt to stretch the planting over too extensive an area, but rather to make each part perfect in itself. Be sure to buy your trees and shrubs from reliable sources. A good buyer looks over the plants carefully to make certain that each one is compact and vigorous.
It is important not to introduce too great a variety of evergreens in the planting scheme, but rather to have each kind well represented, otherwise the planting would be too heterogeneous, which would give a confused effect. This does not apply to plants that are columnar or globular in shape. These should be used sparingly.
Take care of the key planting first of all; this is usually along the foundation of the house. Evergreens are unsurpassed for tying the house to the ground; they give an exceptionally handsome setting - in fact they bring about a real metamorphosis. A touch of deciduous material introduced into the evergreen planting gives a light note. It adds interest and beauty because of the contrast in habit of growth and color of foliage that it provides. Flowering shrubs which are conspicuous for their blooms, berries, and autumn coloration are excellent for this purpose.
Along the boundary of the place a combination of the taller-growing and lower-growing evergreens gives more complete seclusion than any other kind of plant material, and provides an all-year-round line of demarcation. The taller-growing kinds are excellent for the background, and the dwarf types are used as facers.
In many suburban communities houses are built on small lots. Under these conditions landscaping is often difficult. When a good neighbor policy can be adopted, this sometimes turns out to be a solution to the problem of restricted space for garden-making. By co-operating in a plan with your next-door neighbor a landscape effect can be developed that will be of mutual benefit. This can be done by treating the two places as a unit in developing the planting plan. The result will be a more spacious, open garden.
Have fun with your gardening!
In making a planting plan it is very important to select the right evergreen for the allotted space. This can hardly be overemphasized. For instance, avoid using tall-growing trees or shrubs directly in front of a window. All too often one sees houses literally smothered with towering evergreens placed in just such a location, shutting out the vista, the air, and the light. Furthermore, a planting of this kind spoils the architectural lines of the house, whereas actually one of the purposes of the planting is to set off these lines to best advantage.
Bear in mind the shape of the evergreen selected, and visualize how it will fit into the general planting scheme. Evergreens have definite forms, use the pyramidal and columnar types sparingly; in fact, these are especially adapted for accent purposes, and where space permits they are sometimes well placed each side of a doorway. The globular kinds are very distinctive, and they should also be used with much thought. Evergreens with a bushy habit of growth and the creeping species, such as some of the Junipers, can be used more freely than those with more formal lines.
Another factor that should be considered is whether the planting is to be made in the sun or in the shade. There are evergreens that thrive in every location, and it is an easy matter to find the right plant for the available situation. Some of those that are shade-tolerant include such favorites as Laurel, Oregon Holly-grape, Holly Olive, Cherry-laurel, and the evergreen species of Privet.
If your builder has given you an allowance for purchasing plant material, you are then a free lance. In spending this sum it is much wiser not to attempt to stretch the planting over too extensive an area, but rather to make each part perfect in itself. Be sure to buy your trees and shrubs from reliable sources. A good buyer looks over the plants carefully to make certain that each one is compact and vigorous.
It is important not to introduce too great a variety of evergreens in the planting scheme, but rather to have each kind well represented, otherwise the planting would be too heterogeneous, which would give a confused effect. This does not apply to plants that are columnar or globular in shape. These should be used sparingly.
Take care of the key planting first of all; this is usually along the foundation of the house. Evergreens are unsurpassed for tying the house to the ground; they give an exceptionally handsome setting - in fact they bring about a real metamorphosis. A touch of deciduous material introduced into the evergreen planting gives a light note. It adds interest and beauty because of the contrast in habit of growth and color of foliage that it provides. Flowering shrubs which are conspicuous for their blooms, berries, and autumn coloration are excellent for this purpose.
Along the boundary of the place a combination of the taller-growing and lower-growing evergreens gives more complete seclusion than any other kind of plant material, and provides an all-year-round line of demarcation. The taller-growing kinds are excellent for the background, and the dwarf types are used as facers.
In many suburban communities houses are built on small lots. Under these conditions landscaping is often difficult. When a good neighbor policy can be adopted, this sometimes turns out to be a solution to the problem of restricted space for garden-making. By co-operating in a plan with your next-door neighbor a landscape effect can be developed that will be of mutual benefit. This can be done by treating the two places as a unit in developing the planting plan. The result will be a more spacious, open garden.
Have fun with your gardening!
Albert II Planning Second Polar Visit
The Arctic tundra may soon see a second visit from Prince Albert of Monaco. A Russian news agency announced in October that Albert II intends to visit the North Pole in a Russian airship next spring. The expedition will be led by Jean-Louis Etienne, a French explorer famous for becoming the first man to travel to the North Pole alone on foot in 1986. Not only does he have Arctic experience, he crossed the entire continent of Antarctica on foot in 1989 and 1990. He has also sailed around the world, rowed across the Atlantic Ocean and climbed Mount Everest.
Their intended vessel will be the Au-30 airship, a unique dirigible built in Moscow by the Russian manufacturer Avgur Russian Air Systems. A dirigible is a buoyant aircraft that is lighter than air. It is steered with rudders and pushed through the air via two 170-horsepower propeller engines. The Au-30 is a multipurpose airship, designed for long-term flights with the capacity for surveillance at low speed and low altitudes, making it an ideal ship with which to survey the North Pole. Other Au-30 airships are being used to survey Russian high-tension wires and Moscow traffic conditions.
The expedition will be the first dirigible flight to the North Pole since famed Norwegian explorer Roald Amundsen made the journey in 1926 with Italian explorer, pilot and engineer Umberto Nobile.
Prince Albert previously visited the North Pole as a part of a dog sled expedition in April 2006. The purpose of his journey was to highlight the importance of research on global warming. He and seven others made a 57-mile trek to the pole, departing from an outpost in Barneo, although the prince noted that the trip was made considerably longer by the formation of ice hills that needed to be climbed along the way. He stated that the trip was very "physically challenging," according to BBC reports.
The voyage was more than just a publicity stunt, as the prince would prove. He established the Albert II Foundation upon his return. The organization is aimed to be "a permanent source of dynamic and innovative actions for environmental protection and sustainable environment," according to the prince.
The foundation aims to focus its efforts on three main areas: climate change, biodiversity and access to drinking water. The foundation feels that serious environmental warning signs "require each of us to act if we are to protect our planet for future generations. We all share the environment; its protection is our duty." Prince Albert stated, "Monaco may not be the biggest country in the world, but I am determined to show it can be among the most innovative in its approaches to the environment."
The 2008 spring expedition to the North Pole will be held in conjunction with the International Polar Year, as declared by the United Nations. The International Polar Year is organized through the International Council for Science and the World Meteorological Organization, and it will consist of over 200 projects involving thousands of scientists from over 60 nations.
The prince 's passion for the North Pole seems to run in the family. Prince Albert 's great-great-grandfather, Albert I, made four trips to the Arctic nearly a century ago. However, Albert II is the first head of state to make it to the North Pole while still in office.
The prince, age 49, became ruler of Monaco in July 2005 after the death of his father, Prince Rainier.
Their intended vessel will be the Au-30 airship, a unique dirigible built in Moscow by the Russian manufacturer Avgur Russian Air Systems. A dirigible is a buoyant aircraft that is lighter than air. It is steered with rudders and pushed through the air via two 170-horsepower propeller engines. The Au-30 is a multipurpose airship, designed for long-term flights with the capacity for surveillance at low speed and low altitudes, making it an ideal ship with which to survey the North Pole. Other Au-30 airships are being used to survey Russian high-tension wires and Moscow traffic conditions.
The expedition will be the first dirigible flight to the North Pole since famed Norwegian explorer Roald Amundsen made the journey in 1926 with Italian explorer, pilot and engineer Umberto Nobile.
Prince Albert previously visited the North Pole as a part of a dog sled expedition in April 2006. The purpose of his journey was to highlight the importance of research on global warming. He and seven others made a 57-mile trek to the pole, departing from an outpost in Barneo, although the prince noted that the trip was made considerably longer by the formation of ice hills that needed to be climbed along the way. He stated that the trip was very "physically challenging," according to BBC reports.
The voyage was more than just a publicity stunt, as the prince would prove. He established the Albert II Foundation upon his return. The organization is aimed to be "a permanent source of dynamic and innovative actions for environmental protection and sustainable environment," according to the prince.
The foundation aims to focus its efforts on three main areas: climate change, biodiversity and access to drinking water. The foundation feels that serious environmental warning signs "require each of us to act if we are to protect our planet for future generations. We all share the environment; its protection is our duty." Prince Albert stated, "Monaco may not be the biggest country in the world, but I am determined to show it can be among the most innovative in its approaches to the environment."
The 2008 spring expedition to the North Pole will be held in conjunction with the International Polar Year, as declared by the United Nations. The International Polar Year is organized through the International Council for Science and the World Meteorological Organization, and it will consist of over 200 projects involving thousands of scientists from over 60 nations.
The prince 's passion for the North Pole seems to run in the family. Prince Albert 's great-great-grandfather, Albert I, made four trips to the Arctic nearly a century ago. However, Albert II is the first head of state to make it to the North Pole while still in office.
The prince, age 49, became ruler of Monaco in July 2005 after the death of his father, Prince Rainier.
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